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环境化学（第十版）（影印版）

样章
作者：
Stanley E. Manahan
定价：
120.00 元
版面字数：
1180千字
开本：
16开
装帧形式：
平装
版次：
1
最新版次
印刷时间：
2024年
ISBN：
978-7-04-062252-2
物料号：
62252-00
出版时间：
2024-06-28
读者对象：
高等教育
一级分类：
环境科学与工程类
二级分类：
环境科学专业课
三级分类：
环境化学及实验
暂无
  • 目录
    • 前辅文
      • Chapter 1 Environmental Chemistry and the Five Spheres of the Environment
        • 1.1 Earth and the Earth System
          • 1.2 Biogeochemical Cycles in the Earth System
            • 1.2.1 Oxygen Cycle
              • 1.2.2 Nitrogen Cycle
                • 1.2.3 Sulfur Cycle
                  • 1.2.4 Phosphorus Cycle
                  • 1.3 Natural Capital of the Earth System
                    • 1.4 What Is Environmental Chemistry?
                      • 1.4.1 Environmental Chemistry and the Spheres of the Earth System
                      • 1.5 Environmental Chemistry of Water and the Hydrosphere
                        • 1.5.1 Water Pollution
                          • 1.5.2 Water Treatment
                          • 1.6 Environmental Chemistry of Air and the Atmosphere
                            • 1.6.1 Atmospheric Chemistry
                              • 1.6.2 Air Pollution
                              • 1.7 Environmental Chemistry of the Geosphere
                                • 1.7.1 The Geosphere and Natural Capital
                                  • 1.7.2 Soil
                                    • 1.7.3 Chemical Composition of Soil
                                    • 1.8 Environmental Chemistry of the Anthrosphere
                                      • 1.8.1 Chemistry and the Anthrosphere
                                        • 1.8.2 Industrial Ecology and Green Chemistry in the Anthrosphere
                                        • 1.9 Environmental Chemistry of the Biosphere
                                          • 1.9.1 Biomaterials from the Biosphere
                                            • 1.9.2 Toxicological Chemistry and Biochemistry
                                              • 1.9.3 Exposure to Toxic Substances
                                              • 1.10 As We Enter the Anthropocene
                                                • 1.10.1 Environmental Priorities for the Sustainocene
                                                • References
                                                  • Further Reading
                                                    • Questions and Problems
                                                    • Chapter 2 The Hydrosphere and Water Chemistry
                                                      • 2.1 Water: An Essential Part of Earth’s Natural Capital
                                                        • 2.2 Sources and Uses of Water
                                                          • 2.2.1 The Groundwater Crisis
                                                          • 2.3 H2O: Simple Formula, Remarkable Molecule
                                                            • 2.4 Life in Water
                                                              • 2.5 Chemistry of Water
                                                                • 2.6 Gases in Water
                                                                  • 2.6.1 Oxygen in Water
                                                                  • 2.7 Water Acidity and Carbon Dioxide in Water
                                                                    • 2.7.1 Carbon Dioxide in Water
                                                                    • 2.8 Alkalinity
                                                                      • 2.8.1 Contributors to Alkalinity at Different pH Values
                                                                        • 2.8.2 Dissolved Inorganic Carbon and Alkalinity
                                                                          • 2.8.3 Influence of Alkalinity on CO2 Solubility
                                                                          • 2.9 Calcium and Other Metals in Water
                                                                            • 2.9.1 Hydrated Metal Ions as Acids
                                                                              • 2.9.2 Calcium in Water
                                                                                • 2.9.3 Dissolved Carbon Dioxide and Calcium Carbonate Minerals
                                                                                • 2.10 Complexation and Chelation
                                                                                  • 2.10.1 Occurrence and Importance of Chelating Agents in Water
                                                                                  • 2.11 Bonding and Structure of Metal Complexes
                                                                                    • 2.11.1 Selectivity and Specificity in Chelation
                                                                                    • 2.12 Calculations of Species Concentrations
                                                                                      • 2.13 Complexation by Deprotonated Ligands
                                                                                        • 2.14 Complexation by Protonated Ligands
                                                                                          • 2.15 Solubilization of Lead Ion from Solids by NTA
                                                                                            • 2.15.1 Reaction of NTA with Metal Carbonate
                                                                                              • 2.15.2 Effect of Calcium Ion on the Reaction of Chelating Agents with Slightly Soluble Salts
                                                                                              • 2.16 Polyphosphates and Phosphonates in Water
                                                                                                • 2.16.1 Polyphosphates
                                                                                                  • 2.16.2 Hydrolysis of Polyphosphates
                                                                                                    • 2.16.3 Complexation by Polyphosphates
                                                                                                      • 2.16.4 Phosphonates
                                                                                                      • 2.17 Complexation by Humic Substances
                                                                                                        • 2.18 Complexation and Redox Processes
                                                                                                          • References
                                                                                                            • Further Reading
                                                                                                              • Questions and Problems
                                                                                                              • Chapter 3 Oxidation/Reduction in Aquatic Chemistry
                                                                                                                • 3.1 The Significance of Oxidation/Reduction in Aquatic Chemistry
                                                                                                                  • 3.2 The Electron and Redox Reactions
                                                                                                                    • 3.3 Electron Activity and pE
                                                                                                                      • 3.4 The Nernst Equation
                                                                                                                        • 3.5 Reaction Tendency: Whole Reaction from Half-Reactions
                                                                                                                          • 3.6 The Nernst Equation and Chemical Equilibrium
                                                                                                                            • 3.7 The Relationship of pE to Free Energy
                                                                                                                              • 3.8 Reactions in Terms of One Electron-Mole
                                                                                                                                • 3.9 The Limits of pE in Water
                                                                                                                                  • 3.10 pE Values in Natural Water Systems
                                                                                                                                    • 3.11 pE–pH Diagrams
                                                                                                                                      • 3.12 Humic Substances as Natural Reductants
                                                                                                                                        • 3.13 Photochemical Processes in Oxidation–Reduction
                                                                                                                                          • 3.14 Corrosion
                                                                                                                                            • References
                                                                                                                                              • Further Reading
                                                                                                                                                • Questions and Problems
                                                                                                                                                • Chapter 4 Phase Interactions in Aquatic Chemistry
                                                                                                                                                  • 4.1 Chemical Interactions Involving Solids, Gases, and Water
                                                                                                                                                    • 4.2 Importance and Formation of Sediments
                                                                                                                                                      • 4.2.1 Formation of Sediments
                                                                                                                                                        • 4.2.2 Organic and Carbonaceous Sedimentary Materials
                                                                                                                                                        • 4.3 Solubilities
                                                                                                                                                          • 4.3.1 Solubilities of Solids
                                                                                                                                                            • 4.3.2 Solubilities of Gases
                                                                                                                                                            • 4.4 Colloidal Particles in Water
                                                                                                                                                              • 4.4.1 Colloids in Water and Contaminant Transport by Colloids
                                                                                                                                                                • 4.4.2 Kinds of Colloidal Particles
                                                                                                                                                                  • 4.4.3 Colloid Stability
                                                                                                                                                                  • 4.5 The Colloidal Properties of Clays
                                                                                                                                                                    • 4.6 Aggregation of Colloidal Particles
                                                                                                                                                                      • 4.6.1 Flocculation of Colloids by Polyelectrolytes
                                                                                                                                                                        • 4.6.2 Flocculation of Bacteria by Polymeric Materials
                                                                                                                                                                        • 4.7 Surface Sorption by Solids
                                                                                                                                                                          • 4.8 Solute Exchange with Bottom Sediments
                                                                                                                                                                            • 4.8.1 Trace-Level Metals in Suspended Matter and Sediments
                                                                                                                                                                              • 4.8.2 Phosphorus Exchange with Bottom Sediments
                                                                                                                                                                                • 4.8.3 Organic Compounds on Sediments and Suspended Matter
                                                                                                                                                                                  • 4.8.4 Bioavailability of Sediment Contaminants
                                                                                                                                                                                  • 4.9 Interstitial Water
                                                                                                                                                                                    • 4.10 Phase Interactions in Chemical Fate and Transport
                                                                                                                                                                                      • 4.10.1 Rivers
                                                                                                                                                                                        • 4.10.2 Lakes and Reservoirs
                                                                                                                                                                                          • 4.10.3 Exchange with the Atmosphere
                                                                                                                                                                                            • 4.10.4 Exchange with Sediments
                                                                                                                                                                                            • References
                                                                                                                                                                                              • Further Reading
                                                                                                                                                                                                • Questions and Problems
                                                                                                                                                                                                • Chapter 5 Aquatic Microbial Biochemistry
                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 5.1 Aquatic Biochemical Processes
                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 5.1.1 Microorganisms at Interfaces
                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 5.2 Algae
                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 5.3 Fungi
                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 5.4 Protozoa
                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 5.5 Bacteria
                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 5.5.1 Autotrophic and Heterotrophic Bacteria
                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 5.5.2 Oxic and Anoxic Bacteria
                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 5.6 The Prokaryotic Bacterial Cell
                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 5.7 Kinetics of Bacterial Growth
                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 5.8 Bacterial Metabolism
                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 5.8.1 Factors Affecting Bacterial Metabolism
                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 5.8.2 Microbial Oxidation and Reduction
                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 5.9 Microbial Transformations of Carbon
                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 5.9.1 Methane-Forming Bacteria
                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 5.9.2 Bacterial Utilization of Hydrocarbons
                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 5.9.3 Microbial Utilization of Carbon Monoxide
                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 5.10 Biodegradation of Organic Matter
                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 5.10.1 Oxidation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 5.10.2 Microbial Oxidation of Hydrocarbons
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 5.10.3 Other Biochemical Processes in Biodegradation of Organics
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 5.11 Microbial Transformations of Nitrogen
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 5.11.1 Nitrogen Fixation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 5.11.2 Nitrification
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 5.11.3 Nitrate Reduction
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 5.11.4 Denitrification
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 5.12 Microbial Transformations of Phosphorus and Sulfur
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 5.12.1 Phosphorus Compounds
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 5.12.2 Sulfur Compounds
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 5.12.3 Oxidation of H2S and Reduction of Sulfate by Bacteria
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 5.12.4 Microorganism-Mediated Degradation of Organic Sulfur Compounds
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 5.13 Microbial Transformations of Halogens and Organohalides
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 5.14 Microbial Transformations of Metals and Metalloids
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 5.14.1 Acid Mine Waters
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 5.14.2 Microbial Transitions of Selenium
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 5.14.3 Microbial Corrosion
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • References
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • Further Reading
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • Questions and Problems
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • Chapter 6 Water Pollutants and Water Pollution
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 6.1 Nature and Types of Water Pollutants
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 6.1.1 Markers of Water Pollution
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 6.2 Elemental Pollutants
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 6.3 Heavy Metals
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 6.3.1 Cadmium
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 6.3.2 Lead
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 6.3.3 Mercury
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 6.4 Metalloids
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 6.5 Organically Bound Metals and Metalloids
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 6.5.1 Organotin Compounds
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 6.6 Inorganic Species
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 6.6.1 Cyanide
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 6.6.2 Ammonia and Other Inorganic Pollutants
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 6.6.3 Asbestos in Water
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 6.7 Algal Nutrients and Eutrophication
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 6.8 Acidity, Alkalinity, and Salinity
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 6.9 Oxygen, Oxidants, and Reductants
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 6.10 Organic Pollutants
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 6.10.1 Bioaccumulation of Organic Pollutants
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 6.10.2 Sewage
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 6.10.3 Soaps, Detergents, and Detergent Builders
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 6.10.3.1 Soaps
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 6.10.3.2 Detergents
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 6.10.3.3 Microbial Toxins
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 6.11 Pesticides in Water
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 6.11.1 Natural Product Insecticides, Pyrethrins, and Pyrethroids
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 6.11.2 The Emergence of Neonicotinoid Insecticides
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 6.11.3 DDT and Organochlorine Insecticides
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 6.11.4 Organophosphate Insecticides
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 6.11.5 Carbamates
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 6.11.6 Fungicides
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 6.11.7 Herbicides
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 6.11.8 Bipyridylium Compounds
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 6.11.9 Herbicidal Heterocyclic Nitrogen Compounds
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 6.11.10 Chlorophenoxy Herbicides
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 6.11.11 Miscellaneous Herbicides
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 6.12 Organochlorine Compounds in Water
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 6.12.1 By-Products of Pesticide Manufacture
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 6.12.2 Polychlorinated Biphenyls
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 6.12.3 1,2,3-Trichloropropane in Groundwater
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 6.12.4 Naturally Occurring Chlorinated and Brominated Compounds
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 6.13 Emerging Water Pollutants, Pharmaceuticals, and Household Wastes
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 6.13.1 Bactericides and Antibiotics
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 6.13.2 Estrogenic Substances in Wastewater Effluents
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 6.13.3 Biorefractory Organic Pollutants
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 6.14 Radionuclides in the Aquatic Environment
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • References
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • Further Reading
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • Questions and Problems
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • Chapter 7 World Water Crisis and Climate Change: Water Renovation and Recycling
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 7.1 The Most Important Body of Water—You
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 7.2 Water Treatment and Water Use
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 7.3 Municipal Water Treatment
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 7.3.1 Failures in Water Treatment
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 7.4 Treatment of Water for Industrial and Commercial Use
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 7.5 Wastewater Treatment
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 7.5.1 Industrial Wastewater Treatment
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 7.6 Advanced Water Treatment
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 7.7 Aeration of Water
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 7.8 Removal of Solids
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 7.8.1 Dissolved Air Flotation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 7.8.2 Membrane Filtration Processes
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 7.9 Removal of Calcium and Other Metals
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 7.9.1 Removal of Iron and Manganese
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 7.9.2 Removal of Heavy Metals from Water
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 7.10 Removal of Biodegradable Organics from Water and Sewage Treatment
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 7.10.1 Biodegradable Organics Removal from Wastewater
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 7.10.2 Membrane Bioreactor
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 7.10.3 Sludge Handling and Disposal
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 7.10.4 Chemical Sludges
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 7.10.5 Additional Purification of Water from Secondary Wastewater Treatment
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 7.11 Removal of Dissolved Organics
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 7.11.1 Removal of Herbicides
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 7.12 Removal of Dissolved Inorganics
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 7.12.1 Ion Exchange
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 7.12.2 Reverse Osmosis
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 7.12.3 Phosphorus Removal
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 7.12.4 Nitrogen Removal
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 7.13 Water Disinfection
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 7.13.1 Chlorine Dioxide
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 7.13.2 Green Ozone for Water Disinfection
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 7.13.3 Ferrate and Percarbonate
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 7.13.4 Disinfection with Ultraviolet Radiation and Photocatalytic Processes
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 7.14 Natural Water Purification Processes
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 7.14.1 Industrial Wastewater Treatment by Soil
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 7.15 Green Water and Total Water Recycle
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 7.16 Water Conservation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 7.17 Protecting Water Supplies from Attack
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • References
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • Further Reading
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • Questions and Problems
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • Chapter 8 The Atmosphere and Atmospheric Chemistry
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 8.1 The Atmosphere and Atmospheric Chemistry
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 8.1.1 Atmospheric Composition
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 8.1.2 Oxides of Nitrogen and Sulfur
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 8.1.3 Atmospheric Methane, Hydrocarbons, and Photochemical Smog
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 8.1.4 Particulate Matter
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 8.1.5 Primary and Secondary Pollutants
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 8.2 How the Atmosphere Got That Way and Its Natural Capital
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 8.2.1 Chemical and Biochemical Processes in Evolution of the Atmosphere
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 8.2.2 Self-Purification of the Atmosphere
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 8.3 Physical Characteristics of the Atmosphere
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 8.3.1 Variation of Pressure and Density with Altitude
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 8.3.2 Stratification of the Atmosphere
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 8.4 Energy Transfer in the Atmosphere
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 8.4.1 Earth’s Radiation Budget
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 8.5 Atmospheric Mass Transfer, Meteorology, and Weather
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 8.5.1 Atmospheric Water in Energy and Mass Transfer
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 8.5.2 Air Masses
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 8.5.3 Topographical Effects
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 8.5.4 Movement of Air Masses
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 8.5.5 Global Weather
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 8.5.6 Weather Fronts and Storms
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 8.6 Inversions and Air Pollution
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 8.7 Global Climate and Microclimate
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 8.7.1 Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide and Human Modifications of Climate
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 8.7.2 Microclimate
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 8.7.3 Effects of Urbanization on Microclimate
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 8.8 Chemical and Photochemical Reactions in the Atmosphere
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 8.8.1 Photochemical Processes
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 8.8.2 Ions and Radicals in the Atmosphere
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 8.8.3 Ions at Lower Altitudes in the Troposphere
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 8.8.4 Free Radicals
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 8.8.5 Hydroxyl and Hydroperoxyl Radicals in the Atmosphere
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 8.9 Acid–Base Reactions in the Atmosphere
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 8.10 Reactions of Atmospheric Oxygen
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 8.10.1 Tropospheric Ozone in the Unpolluted Atmosphere
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 8.11 Reactions of Atmospheric Nitrogen
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 8.12 Atmospheric Water
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 8.13 Influence of the Anthrosphere
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 8.14 Chemical Fate and Transport in the Atmosphere
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • References
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • Further Reading
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • Questions and Problems
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • Chapter 9 Particles in the Atmosphere
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 9.1 Particles in the Atmosphere
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 9.2 Physical Behavior of Particles in the Atmosphere
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 9.2.1 Size and Settling of Atmospheric Particles
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 9.3 Physical Processes for Particle Formation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 9.4 Chemical Processes for Particle Formation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 9.4.1 Inorganic Particles
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 9.4.2 Organic Particles
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 9.5 The Composition of Inorganic Particles
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 9.5.1 Fly Ash
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 9.5.2 Asbestos
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 9.6 Toxic Metals in the Atmosphere
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 9.6.1 Atmospheric Mercury
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 9.6.2 Atmospheric Lead
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 9.6.3 Atmospheric Beryllium
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 9.7 Radioactive Particles
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 9.8 Organic Particles in the Atmosphere
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 9.8.1 Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 9.8.2 Carbonaceous Particles from Diesel Engines
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 9.9 Effects of Particles
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 9.9.1 The Asian Brown Cloud: Climate and Health Effects
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 9.9.2 Partitioning of Semivolatile Organic Substances between Air and Particles
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 9.10 Water as Particulate Matter
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 9.11 Atmospheric Chemical Reactions Involving Particles
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 9.12 Control of Particle Emissions
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 9.12.1 Particle Removal by Sedimentation and Inertia
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 9.12.2 Particle Filtration
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 9.12.3 Scrubbers
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 9.12.4 Electrostatic Removal
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • References
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • Further Reading
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • Questions and Problems
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • Chapter 10 Gaseous Inorganic Air Pollutants
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 10.1 Inorganic Pollutant Gases
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 10.2 Production and Control of Carbon Monoxide
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 10.2.1 Control of Carbon Monoxide Emissions
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 10.3 Fate of Atmospheric CO
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 10.4 Sulfur Dioxide Sources and the Sulfur Cycle
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 10.5 Sulfur Dioxide Reactions in the Atmosphere
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 10.5.1 Effects of Atmospheric Sulfur Dioxide
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 10.5.2 Sulfur Dioxide Removal
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 10.5.3 Oxy-Fuel Combustion for Sulfur Dioxide and Carbon Dioxide Recovery
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 10.6 Nitrogen Oxides in the Atmosphere
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 10.6.1 Atmospheric Reactions of NOx
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 10.6.2 Harmful Effects of Nitrogen Oxides
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 10.6.3 Control of Nitrogen Oxides
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 10.6.4 Limiting Production of Nitrogen Oxides
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 10.6.5 Removal of Nitrogen Oxides from Stack Gas
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 10.7 Acid Rain
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 10.8 Ammonia in the Atmosphere
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 10.9 Fluorine, Chlorine, and Their Gaseous Compounds
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 10.9.1 Chlorine and Hydrogen Chloride
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 10.9.2 Hydrogen Chloride in the Atmosphere
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 10.10 Reduced Sulfur Gases
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • References
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • Further Reading
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • Questions and Problems
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • Chapter 11 Organic Air Pollutants
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 11.1 Organic Compounds in the Atmosphere
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 11.1.1 Loss of Organic Substances from the Atmosphere
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 11.1.2 Persistent Organic Pollutants
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 11.1.3 Global Distillation and Fractionation of POPs
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 11.2 Biogenic Organic Compounds
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 11.2.1 Biogenic Methane
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 11.2.2 Biogenic Hydrocarbons from Plants
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 11.2.3 Removal of Atmospheric Organic Compounds by Plants
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 11.3 Pollutant Hydrocarbons
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 11.3.1 Aromatic Hydrocarbons
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 11.3.2 Reactions of Atmospheric Aromatic Hydrocarbons
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 11.4 Carbonyl Compounds
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 11.5 Miscellaneous Oxygen-Containing Compounds
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 11.5.1 Alcohols
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 11.5.2 Phenols
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 11.5.3 Ethers
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 11.5.4 Oxides
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 11.5.5 Carboxylic Acids
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 11.6 Organonitrogen Compounds
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 11.7 Organohalide Compounds
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 11.7.1 CFCs and Halons
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 11.7.2 Atmospheric Reactions of Hydrofluorocarbons and Hydrochlorofluorocarbons
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 11.7.3 Perfluorocarbons
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 11.7.4 Chlorinated Dibenzo-p-Dioxins and Dibenzofurans
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 11.8 Organosulfur Compounds
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 11.9 Organic Particulate Matter
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 11.10 Hazardous Air Pollutant Organic Compounds
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • References
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • Further Reading
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • Questions and Problems
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • Chapter 12 Photochemical Smog
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 12.1 Reduced Visibility When the Sun Shines
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 12.2 Smog-Forming Emissions
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 12.2.1 Control of Exhaust Hydrocarbons
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 12.2.2 Automotive Emission Standards
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 12.2.3 Polluting Green Plants
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 12.3 Smog-Forming Reactions of Organic Compounds in the Atmosphere
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 12.3.1 Photochemical Reactions of Methane
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 12.3.2 Addition Reactions in the Atmosphere
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 12.4 Overview of Smog Formation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 12.5 Mechanisms of Smog Formation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 12.5.1 Nitrate Radical
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 12.5.2 Photolyzable Compounds in the Atmosphere
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 12.6 Reactivity of Hydrocarbons
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 12.7 Importance of HOx/VOC Ratios
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 12.8 Inorganic Products from Smog
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 12.9 Effects of Smog
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • References
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • Further Reading
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • Questions and Problems
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • Chapter 13 The Endangered Global Atmosphere
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 13.1 Saving the Atmosphere to Save Ourselves
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 13.1.1 Preservation of the Atmosphere’s Natural Capital
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 13.2 Earth’s Evolving Atmosphere and Climate Change
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 13.2.1 Changes in Climate
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 13.3 Effects of the Anthrosphere on the Atmosphere and Climate
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 13.4 The Greatest Threat to the Atmosphere and Earth System: Global Warming
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 13.4.1 Methane and Other Greenhouse Gases
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 13.4.2 Particles and Global Warming
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 13.5 Consequences of Global Climate Change
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 13.5.1 Increasing Temperature
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 13.5.2 Passing the Tipping Points
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 13.5.3 Loss of Ice Cover
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 13.5.4 Glaciers and Water Supply
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 13.5.5 Expansion of Subtropical Arid Regions and Drought
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 13.5.6 Some Other Effects of Global Climate Change
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 13.6 Green Science and Technology to Alleviate Global Warming
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 13.6.1 Minimization
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 13.6.2 Counteracting Measures
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 13.6.3 Adaptation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 13.7 Acid Rain
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 13.8 Stratospheric Ozone Destruction
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 13.8.1 Shielding Effect of the Ozone Layer
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 13.8.2 Ozone Layer Destruction
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 13.8.3 Green Chemistry Solutions to Stratospheric Ozone Depletion
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 13.9 Atmospheric Brown Clouds
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 13.9.1 Yellow Dust
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 13.10 Atmospheric Damage by Photochemical Smog
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 13.11 The Urban Aerosol
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 13.12 Nuclear Winter
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 13.12.1 “Doomsday Visitors” from Space
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 13.13 What Is to Be Done?
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • References
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • Further Reading
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • Questions and Problems
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • Chapter 14 The Geosphere and Geochemistry
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 14.1 The Geosphere
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 14.1.1 The Fragile Solid Earth and Its Relationship with the Other Environmental Spheres
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 14.2 Physical Form of the Geosphere
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 14.2.1 Plate Tectonics and Continental Drift
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 14.2.2 Structural Geology
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 14.3 The Nature of Solids in the Geosphere
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 14.3.1 Structure and Properties of Minerals
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 14.3.2 Kinds of Minerals
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 14.3.3 Igneous, Sedimentary, and Metamorphic Rock in the Rock Cycle
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 14.3.4 Rock Cycle
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 14.4 Geochemistry and Weathering of Rock in the Geosphere
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 14.4.1 Physical Aspects of Weathering
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 14.4.2 Chemical Weathering
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 14.4.3 Biological Aspects of Weathering
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 14.5 Clays: Especially Important Weathering Products and Secondary Minerals
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 14.6 Sediments
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 14.7 Groundwater in the Geosphere
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 14.7.1 Water Wells
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 14.7.2 Water Wells and the Arsenic Problem
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 14.8 The Geosphere as a Source of Natural Capital
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 14.9 Environmental Phenomena of the Geosphere
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 14.9.1 Natural Hazards
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 14.9.2 Anthropogenic Hazards
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 14.10 Volcanoes
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 14.11 Earthquakes
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 14.12 Surface Earth Movement
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 14.13 Effects of Human Activities
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 14.13.1 Extraction of Geospheric Resources: Surface Mining
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 14.13.2 Environmental Effects of Mining and Mineral Extraction
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 14.14 Air Pollution and the Geosphere
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 14.15 Water Pollution and the Geosphere
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 14.16 The Geosphere as a Waste Repository
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • References
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • Further Reading
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • Questions and Problems
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • Chapter 15 Soil: Earth’s Lifeline
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 15.1 Have You Thanked a Clod Today?
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 15.1.1 What Is Soil?
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 15.1.2 Agriculture and Soil
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 15.2 Structure of Soil
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 15.3 Composition of Soil
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 15.3.1 Water in Soil
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 15.3.2 The Soil Solution
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 15.3.3 Air in Soil
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 15.3.4 Inorganic Solids in Soil
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 15.3.5 Soil Organic Matter
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 15.4 Acid–Base and Ion-Exchange Reactions in Soil
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 15.4.1 Acid–Base Reactions of Soil
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 15.4.2 Adjustment of Soil Acidity
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 15.4.3 Ion-Exchange Equilibria in Soil
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 15.5 Macronutrients in Soil
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 15.5.1 Sulfur in Soil and as a Macronutrient
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 15.6 Nitrogen, Phosphorus, and Potassium in Soil
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 15.6.1 Nitrogen
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 15.6.2 Phosphorus
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 15.6.3 Potassium
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 15.7 Micronutrients in Soil
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 15.8 Fertilizers
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 15.8.1 Fertilizer Pollution
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 15.9 Pesticides and Their Residues in Soil
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 15.9.1 Soil Fumigants
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 15.10 Wastes and Pollutants and Their Degradation on Soil
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 15.10.1 Soil Pollutants from Livestock Production
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 15.10.2 Biodegradation and the Rhizosphere
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 15.11 Soil Loss and Degradation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 15.11.1 Soil Sustainability and Water Resources
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 15.12 Saving the Land
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 15.12.1 Agroforestry
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 15.12.2 Soil Restoration
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 15.12.3 Poduculture in Soil Restoration
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 15.13 Green Chemistry and Sustainable Agriculture
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 15.14 Genetics and Agriculture
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 15.14.1 Recombinant DNA and Genetic Engineering in Agriculture
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 15.14.2 The Major Transgenic Crops and Their Characteristics
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 15.14.3 Crops versus Pests
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 15.14.4 Future Crops
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 15.15 Agriculture and Health
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 15.15.1 Food Contamination
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 15.16 Protecting the Food Supply from Attack
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • References
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • Further Reading
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • Questions and Problems
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • Chapter 16 The Anthrosphere: Industrial Ecology and Green Chemistry
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 16.1 Changing the Bad Old Ways
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 16.2 Green Chemistry
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 16.3 Reduction of Risk: Hazard and Exposure
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 16.3.1 The Risks of Not Taking Risks
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 16.4 Waste Prevention and Green Chemistry
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 16.5 Green Chemistry and Synthetic Chemistry
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 16.5.1 Yield and Atom Economy
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 16.6 Feedstocks
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 16.6.1 Biological Feedstocks
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 16.7 Reagents
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 16.8 Stoichiometric and Catalytic Reagents
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 16.9 Media and Solvents
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 16.9.1 Water, the Greenest Solvent
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 16.9.2 Dense Phase Carbon Dioxide as a Solvent
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 16.9.3 Gas-Expanded Solvents
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 16.10 Enhancing Reactions
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 16.11 Industrial Ecology
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 16.12 The Five Major Components of an Industrial Ecosystem
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 16.13 Industrial Metabolism
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 16.14 The Kalundborg Industrial Ecosystem
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 16.15 Attributes of Successful Industrial Ecosystems
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 16.15.1 Diversity
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 16.16 Environmental Impacts in Industrial Ecology
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 16.17 Life Cycles: Expanding and Closing the Materials Loop
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 16.17.1 Product Stewardship
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 16.17.2 Embedded Utility
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 16.18 Design for Environment
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 16.18.1 Products, Processes, and Facilities
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 16.18.2 Key Factors in Design for Environment
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 16.18.3 Hazardous Materials in Design for Environment
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 16.19 Inherent Safety
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 16.19.1 Increased Safety with Smaller Size
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 16.20 Industrial Ecology and Ecological Engineering
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • References
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • Further Reading
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • Questions and Problems
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • Chapter 17 Resources and Sustainable Materials
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 17.1 Where to Get the Stuff We Need?
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 17.2 Extraction of Materials from the Geosphere
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 17.3 Environmental Effects of Mining and Mineral Extraction
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 17.4 Sustainable Utilization of Geospheric Mineral Resources
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 17.4.1 Metals
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 17.5 Metal Resources and Industrial Ecology
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 17.5.1 Aluminum
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 17.5.2 Chromium
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 17.5.3 Copper
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 17.5.4 Cobalt
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 17.5.5 Lead
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 17.5.6 Lithium
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 17.5.7 Zinc
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 17.5.8 Rare Earths
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 17.6 Nonmetal Mineral Resources
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 17.7 Phosphates
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 17.8 Sulfur
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 17.8.1 Gypsum
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 17.9 Wood: An Abundant Renewable Resource
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 17.10 Extending Resources with Industrial Ecology
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 17.10.1 Metals
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 17.10.2 Plastics and Rubber
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 17.10.3 Lubricating Oil
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • References
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • Further Reading
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • Questions and Problems
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • Chapter 18 Sustainable Energy: The Key to Everything
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 18.1 The Energy Problem
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 18.2 Nature of Energy
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 18.3 Sustainable Energy: Away from the Sun and Back Again
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 18.3.1 The Brief Era of Fossil Fuels
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 18.3.2 Back to the Sun
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 18.4 Sources of Energy Used in the Anthrosphere: Present and Future
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 18.5 Energy Devices and Conversions
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 18.5.1 Fuel Cells
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 18.6 Energy Conservation and Renewable Energy Sources
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 18.6.1 Renewable Energy
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 18.7 Petroleum Hydrocarbons and Natural Gas Liquids
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 18.7.1 Heavy Oil
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 18.7.2 Shale Oil
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 18.7.3 Natural Gas Liquids
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 18.8 Natural Gas
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 18.9 Coal
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 18.9.1 Coal Conversion
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 18.10 Carbon Sequestration for Fossil Fuel Utilization
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 18.11 The Great Plains Synfuels Plant: Industrial Ecology in Practice to Produce Energy and Chemicals
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 18.12 Nuclear Energy
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 18.12.1 Thorium-Fueled Reactors
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 18.12.2 Nuclear Fusion
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 18.13 Geothermal Energy
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 18.14 The Sun: An Ideal, Renewable Energy Source
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 18.14.1 Solar Photovoltaic Energy Systems
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 18.14.2 Artificial Photosynthesis for Capturing Solar Energy
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 18.15 Energy from Earth’s Two Great Fluids in Motion
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 18.15.1 The Success of Wind Power
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 18.15.2 Energy from Moving Water
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 18.15.3 Energy from Moving Water without Dams
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 18.16 Biomass Energy: An Overview of Biofuels and Their Resources
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 18.16.1 Processing of Biofuel to More Compact Forms
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 18.16.2 Decarbonization with Biomass Utilization
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 18.16.3 Conversion of Biomass to Other Fuels
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 18.16.4 Ethanol Fuel
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 18.16.5 Biodiesel Fuel
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 18.16.6 Fuel from Algae
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 18.16.7 The Potential of Lignocellulose Fuels
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 18.16.8 Chemical Conversion of Biomass to Synthetic Fuels
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 18.16.9 Biogas
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 18.16.10 Biorefineries and Utilizing Biomass for Energy
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 18.16.11 A System of Industrial Ecology for Methane Production from Renewable Sources
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 18.17 Hydrogen as a Means to Store and Utilize Energy
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 18.18 Combined Power Cycles
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • References
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • Further Reading
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • Questions and Problems
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • Chapter 19 The Nature, Sources, and Environmental Chemistry of Hazardous Wastes
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 19.1 Introduction
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 19.1.1 History of Hazardous Substances
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 19.1.2 Legislation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 19.2 Classification of Hazardous Substances and Wastes
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 19.2.1 Characteristics and Listed Wastes
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 19.2.2 Hazardous Wastes
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 19.2.3 Hazardous Wastes and Air and Water Pollution Control
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 19.3 Sources of Wastes
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 19.3.1 Types of Hazardous Wastes
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 19.3.2 Hazardous Waste Generators
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 19.4 Flammable and Combustible Substances
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 19.4.1 Combustion of Finely Divided Particles
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 19.4.2 Oxidizers
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 19.4.3 Spontaneous Ignition
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 19.4.4 Toxic Products of Combustion
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 19.5 Reactive Substances
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 19.5.1 Chemical Structure and Reactivity
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 19.6 Corrosive Substances
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 19.6.1 Sulfuric Acid
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 19.7 Toxic Substances
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 19.7.1 Toxicity Characteristic Leaching Procedure
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 19.8 Physical Forms and Segregation of Wastes
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 19.9 Environmental Chemistry of Hazardous Wastes
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 19.10 Physical and Chemical Properties of Hazardous Wastes
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 19.11 Transport, Effects, and Fates of Hazardous Wastes
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 19.11.1 Physical Properties of Wastes
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 19.11.2 Chemical Factors
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 19.11.3 Effects of Hazardous Wastes
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 19.11.4 Fates of Hazardous Wastes
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 19.12 Hazardous Wastes and the Anthrosphere
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 19.13 Hazardous Wastes in the Geosphere
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 19.14 Hazardous Wastes in the Hydrosphere
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 19.15 Hazardous Wastes in the Atmosphere
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 19.16 Hazardous Wastes in the Biosphere
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 19.16.1 Microbial Metabolism in Waste Degradation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 19.16.2 Ecotoxicology of Hazardous Wastes
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 19.17 Hazardous Substances in Terrorism
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 19.17.1 Detection of Hazardous Substances
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 19.17.2 Removing Hazardous Agents
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • References
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • Further Reading
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • Questions and Problems
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • Chapter 20 Industrial Ecology for Waste Minimization, Utilization, and Treatment
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 20.1 Introduction
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 20.2 Waste Reduction and Minimization
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 20.3 Recycling
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 20.3.1 Examples of Recycling
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 20.3.2 Waste Oil Utilization and Recovery
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 20.3.3 Waste Oil Fuel
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 20.3.4 Waste Solvent Recovery and Recycle
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 20.3.5 Recovery of Water from Wastewater
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 20.4 Physical Methods of Waste Treatment
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 20.4.1 Methods of Physical Treatment
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 20.4.2 Phase Separations
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 20.4.3 Phase Transition
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 20.4.4 Phase Transfer
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 20.4.5 Molecular Separation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 20.5 Chemical Treatment: An Overview
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 20.5.1 Acid/Base Neutralization
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 20.5.2 Chemical Precipitation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 20.5.3 Coprecipitation of Metals
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 20.5.4 Oxidation/Reduction
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 20.5.5 Electrolysis
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 20.5.6 Hydrolysis
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 20.5.7 Chemical Extraction and Leaching
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 20.5.8 Ion Exchange
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 20.6 Green Waste Treatment by Photolysis and Sonolysis
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 20.7 Thermal Treatment Methods
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 20.7.1 Incineration Systems
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 20.7.2 Wet Air Oxidation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 20.7.3 UV-Enhanced Wet Oxidation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 20.7.4 Destruction of Hazardous Wastes in Cement Manufacture
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 20.8 Biodegradation of Wastes
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 20.9 Phytoremediation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 20.10 Land Treatment and Composting
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 20.10.1 Land Treatment
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 20.10.2 Composting
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 20.11 Preparation of Wastes for Disposal
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 20.12 Ultimate Disposal of Wastes
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 20.12.1 Disposal Aboveground
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 20.12.2 Landfill
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 20.12.3 Surface Impoundment of Liquids
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 20.12.4 Deep-Well Disposal of Liquids
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 20.13 Leachate and Gas Emissions
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 20.14 In Situ Treatment
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 20.14.1 In Situ Thermal Processes
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • References
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • Further Reading
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • Questions and Problems
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • Chapter 21 The Biosphere: Environmental Biochemistry
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 21.1 Life and the Biosphere
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 21.1.1 The Biosphere in Stabilizing the Earth System: The Gaia Hypothesis
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 21.2 Metabolism and Control in Organisms
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 21.2.1 Enzymes in Metabolism
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 21.2.2 Nutrients
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 21.2.3 Control in Organisms
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 21.3 Reproduction and Inherited Traits
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 21.4 Stability and Equilibrium of the Biosphere
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 21.5 Biochemistry
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 21.5.1 Biomolecules
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 21.6 Biochemistry and the Cell
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 21.6.1 Major Cell Features
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 21.7 Proteins
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 21.7.1 Protein Structure
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 21.7.2 Denaturation of Proteins
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 21.8 Carbohydrates
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 21.9 Lipids
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 21.10 Enzymes
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 21.11 Nucleic Acids
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 21.11.1 Nucleic Acids in Protein Synthesis
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 21.11.2 Modified DNA
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 21.12 Recombinant DNA and Genetic Engineering
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 21.13 Metabolic Processes
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 21.13.1 Energy-Yielding Processes
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 21.14 Metabolism of Xenobiotic Compounds
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 21.14.1 Phase I and Phase II Reactions
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • References
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • Further Reading
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • Questions and Problems
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • Chapter 22 Toxicological Chemistry
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 22.1 Introduction to Toxicology and Toxicological Chemistry
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 22.1.1 Toxicology
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 22.1.2 Synergism, Potentiation, and Antagonism
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 22.2 Dose–Response Relationships
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 22.3 Relative Toxicities
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 22.3.1 Nonlethal Effects
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 22.4 Reversibility and Sensitivity
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 22.4.1 Hypersensitivity and Hyposensitivity
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 22.5 Xenobiotic and Endogenous Substances
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 22.6 Toxicological Chemistry
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 22.6.1 Toxicants in the Body
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 22.6.2 Phase I Reactions
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 22.6.3 Phase II Reactions
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 22.7 Kinetic Phase and Dynamic Phase
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 22.7.1 Kinetic Phase
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 22.7.2 Dynamic Phase
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 22.7.3 Primary Reaction in the Dynamic Phase
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 22.7.4 Biochemical Effects in the Dynamic Phase
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 22.7.5 Responses to Toxicants
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 22.8 Teratogenesis, Mutagenesis, Carcinogenesis, and Effects on the Immune and Reproductive Systems
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 22.8.1 Teratogenesis
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 22.8.2 Mutagenesis
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 22.8.3 Biochemistry of Mutagenesis
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 22.8.4 Carcinogenesis
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 22.8.5 Biochemistry of Carcinogenesis
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 22.8.6 Alkylating Agents in Carcinogenesis
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 22.8.7 Testing for Carcinogens
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 22.8.8 Bruce Ames Test
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 22.8.9 Immune System Response
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 22.8.10 Endocrine Disruption
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 22.9 Health Hazards
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 22.9.1 Assessment of Potential Exposure
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 22.9.2 Epidemiological Evidence
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 22.9.3 Estimation of Health Effects Risks
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 22.9.4 Risk Assessment
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • References
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • Further Reading
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • Questions and Problems
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • Chapter 23 Toxicological Chemistry of Chemical Substances
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 23.1 Introduction
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 23.1.1 ATSDR Toxicological Profiles
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 23.2 Toxic Elements and Elemental Forms
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 23.2.1 Ozone
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 23.2.2 White Phosphorus
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 23.2.3 Elemental Halogens
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 23.2.4 Heavy Metals
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 23.3 Toxic Inorganic Compounds
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 23.3.1 Cyanide
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 23.3.2 Carbon Monoxide
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 23.3.3 Nitrogen Oxides
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 23.3.4 Hydrogen Halides
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 23.3.5 Hydrogen Fluoride
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 23.3.6 Hydrogen Chloride
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 23.3.7 Interhalogen Compounds and Halogen Oxides
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 23.3.8 Inorganic Compounds of Silicon
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 23.3.9 Asbestos
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 23.3.10 Inorganic Phosphorus Compounds
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 23.3.11 Inorganic Compounds of Sulfur
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 23.3.12 Perchlorate
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 23.3.13 Organometallic Compounds
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 23.3.14 Organolead Compounds
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 23.3.15 Organotin Compounds
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 23.3.16 Carbonyls
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 23.3.17 Reaction Products of Organometallic Compounds
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 23.4 Toxicology of Organic Compounds
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 23.4.1 Alkane Hydrocarbons
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 23.4.2 Alkene and Alkyne Hydrocarbons
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 23.4.3 Benzene and Aromatic Hydrocarbons
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 23.4.4 Toluene
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 23.4.5 Naphthalene
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 23.4.6 Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 23.4.7 Oxygen-Containing Organic Compounds
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 23.4.7.1 Oxides
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 23.4.7.2 Alcohols
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 23.4.7.3 Phenols
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 23.4.7.4 Aldehydes and Ketones
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 23.4.7.5 Carboxylic Acids
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 23.4.7.6 Ethers
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 23.4.7.7 Acid Anhydrides
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 23.4.7.8 Esters
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 23.4.8 Organonitrogen Compounds
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 23.4.8.1 Aliphatic Amines
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 23.4.8.2 Carbocyclic Aromatic Amines
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 23.4.8.3 Pyridine
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 23.4.8.4 Melamine
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 23.4.8.5 Acrylamide: Toxic Potato Chips?
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 23.4.8.6 Nitriles
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 23.4.8.7 Nitro Compounds
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 23.4.8.8 Nitrosamines
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 23.4.8.9 Isocyanates and Methyl Isocyanate
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 23.4.8.10 Organonitrogen Pesticides
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 23.4.9 Organohalide Compounds
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 23.4.9.1 Alkyl Halides
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 23.4.9.2 Alkenyl Halides
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 23.4.9.3 Aryl Halides
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 23.4.10 Organohalide Pesticides
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 23.4.10.1 TCDD
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 23.4.10.2 Chlorinated Phenols
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 23.4.11 Organosulfur Compounds
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 23.4.11.1 Sulfur Mustards
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 23.4.12 Organophosphorus Compounds
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 23.4.12.1 Organophosphate Esters
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 23.4.12.2 Phosphorothionate and Phosphorodithioate Ester Insecticides
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 23.4.12.3 Organophosphorus Military Poisons
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 23.5 Toxic Natural Products
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • References
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • Further Reading
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • Questions and Problems
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • Chapter 24 Chemical Analysis in Environmental and Toxicological Chemistry
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 24.1 Analytical Chemistry
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 24.2 The Chemical Analysis Process
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 24.3 Major Categories of Chemical Analysis
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 24.4 Error and Treatment of Data
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 24.5 Gravimetric and Volumetric Analyses
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 24.6 Spectrophotometric Methods of Analysis
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 24.6.1 Absorption Spectrophotometry
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 24.6.2 Atomic Absorption and Emission Analyses
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 24.6.3 Atomic Emission Techniques
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 24.7 Electrochemical Methods of Analysis
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 24.8 Chromatography
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 24.8.1 High-Performance Liquid Chromatography
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 24.8.2 Ion Chromatography
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 24.9 Methods for Water Analysis
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 24.10 Mass Spectrometry
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 24.11 Automated Analyses
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 24.12 Immunoassay Screening
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 24.13 Total Organic Carbon in Water
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 24.14 Measurement of Radioactivity in Water
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 24.15 Analysis of Wastes and Solids
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 24.15.1 Toxicity Characteristic Leaching Procedure
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 24.16 Atmospheric Monitoring
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 24.16.1 Methods for Sampling and Analyzing Atmospheric Pollutants
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 24.16.2 Atmospheric Carbon Monoxide by Infrared Absorption
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 24.16.3 Determination of Hydrocarbons and Organics in the Atmosphere
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 24.16.4 Direct Spectrophotometric Analysis of Gaseous Air Pollutants
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 24.17 Analysis of Biological Materials and Xenobiotics
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 24.17.1 Indicators of Exposure to Xenobiotics
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 24.17.2 Immunological Methods of Xenobiotics Analysis
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • References
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • Further Reading
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • Questions and Problems
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                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                相关图书

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                环境化学实验（第二版）

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                董德明 朱利中

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                14.80 元 收藏

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                环境分析化学

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                但德忠

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                42.60 元 收藏

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                环境化学（第2版）（换封面）

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                戴树桂

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                53.90 元 收藏

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                环境化学（第二版）

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                朱利中

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                45.50 元 收藏

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                有机污染化学（第二版）

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                于红霞 王连生 史薇 张效伟 主编

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                61.00 元 收藏

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                环境化学（第三版）

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                孙红文 戴树桂 主编

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                55.00 元 收藏